After enlisting numerous remnants of Hurro-Urartian in Kurdish vocabulary and morpheme system, now it is time to recognize loans which have entered Kurdish via Hurro-Urartian. The largest group of loans which have entered Kurdish via Hurro-Urartian belongs to Hittite, being in contact with Hurro-Urartian for millennia. It is worth reminding that the Hurro-Urartian form alongside the Iranic ''Syctho-Cimmerian'' the other pillar of Kurdish language.We had already listed Slavic lexemes entered Kurdish via Scytho-Cimmerian.
To clarify the situation following formula is helpful:
Kurdish is formed of
1) Hurro-Urartian (+ Hittite loans)
2)Scytho-Cimmerian (+ Slavic loans)
Of course at later periods, especially during post-Islamic period, Kurdish has also adopted loans from some other languages: (Persian, Arabic, Turkish, French, English)
Now, list of Hittite words in Kurdish:
pillar
Hittite: kulaka
Kurdish: kolaka (typical o<u in central and northern Kurdish)
kin
Hittite: hasmi
Kurdish: xizm
clay
Hittite: purut
Kurdish: pûrûd
star
Hittite: haster
Kurdish: astera, hastêrk (sounds more relevant to Hittite than to Iranic equivalents)
father
Hittite: tati
Kurdish: tati
Hittite: karpi (fury, anger)
Kurdish: kilpa (fiery)
Hittite/Luwian: kisha (to comb)
Kurdish: qizh (hair of head)
Hittite: tarkumia (to annonce)
Kurdish: dirkan-(divulge, disclose)
Hittite/Luwian: Hinkan (to die)
Kurdish: Xinkan (to die, smother)
The list is to be completed.
On The Kassites And Kurds
The Macro-Comparative Journal. 2011.
The Kassite Language In a Comparative Perspective with Hurrian and Urartean
A very interesting article about the Kassites and their language.
In this article, the writer has tried to explain the origin of the Kassites (Kuri-Galzu, Karduniash), explore the etymology of their name and its relation with that of the the Kalds (Urartians,) and the obvious relationship of the Kassite with Hurro-Urartian languages.
The author concludes that the Kassites may have been the forfathers of Hurro-Urartians.
A very interesting article about the Kassites and their language.
In this article, the writer has tried to explain the origin of the Kassites (Kuri-Galzu, Karduniash), explore the etymology of their name and its relation with that of the the Kalds (Urartians,) and the obvious relationship of the Kassite with Hurro-Urartian languages.
The author concludes that the Kassites may have been the forfathers of Hurro-Urartians.
A Proposal For Latin-Based Kurdish Alphabet (Sample Text)
The following text is from the first paragraph of Kurdistan constitution, found in this link in Kurdo-Arabic script.
Firstly, in current Latin Kurdish alphabet:
Ême, gelî Kurdistan - Êraq, le hestkirdinmanewe bew dijwarîyey newekanman le siyasetekanî hikumete yek le dway yekekan le encam danî serkut kirdin û sitem û çewsanewey le radebeder çeştûyane, û bêbeşkirdinman lew mafaney xwa le azadî û yeksanî dadperwerî be ademîzadî bexşîwin, û çendîn tawanî dije mirov û helmetî cinosayd û paktawî nejadîyan le dijman encamda, ke mêjû be degmen wêney way be xowe bînîwe, ke xoyan le xapûr kirdinî pitir le çuwar hezar u pênsed gund nuwanduwe û gorankarî le beşekî firawan le Kurdistan - Êraq le rêgey be zore milê koch pê kirdinî danîştuwan, yan naçar kirdinyan bo gorînî şunasî neteweyan û be kar hênani çekî kîmyawî u çeke qedexe kirawekanî tirî nêw neteweyî le dijî danîştuwani sivîlî şarî helebcey şehîd û Balîsan û Germiyan û Badînan û çendîn nawçey firawanî tir, û be hezaran lawî Kurdî Feylî le nêw kêlgekanî taqî kirdinewey kîmyawî û gorî be komel berew merg rapêçkirdin, ewaney maneweş xêzanekanyan naçar kiran, bo derewey Êraq koç biken û wilatnamey êraqiyan lê sendinewe û dwa be dway eweş çendîn helmetî be komel qir kirdinyan encamda ke pitir le heşt hezar barzanî girtewe û pirosekanî le naw birdinî be dwa dahêna, ke be enfal naw nirawin û qurbanî pitir le sed û heşta û dû hezar mirovî lê kewtewe.
Secondly, reformed alphabet based on proposal 1 & 2:
Ême, gel Kurdistan - Êraq, le hestkrdnmanewe bew djwariyey newekanman, le syasetekan hkumete yek le dway yekekan le encam dan serkut krdn û stem û çewsanewey le radebeder çeştûyane, û bêbeşkrdnman lew mafaney xwa le azadi û yeksani û dadperweri be ademizadi bexşiwn, û çendin tawan dje mirov û helmet cinosayd û paktaw nejadiyan le djman encamda, ke mêjû be degmen wêney way be xowe biniwe, ke xoyan le xapûr krdn ptr le çuwar hezar û pênsed gund nuwanduwe u gorankari le beşêk frawan le Kurdistan - Êraq le rêgey be zore mlê koç pê krdn daniştuwan, yan naçar krdnyan bo gorin şunas neteweyan û be kar hênan çek kimyawi û çeke qedexe krawekan tr nêwneteweyi le dj daniştuwan sivîl şar helebcey şehid û Balisan û Germyan û Badinan û çendin nawçey frawan tr, û be hezaran law Kurd Feyli le nêw kêlgekan taqi krdnewey kimyawi û gor be komel berew merg rapêçkrdn, ewaney maneweş xêzanekanyan naçar kran, bo derewey Êraq koç bken û wlatnamey êraqiyan lê sendnewe û dwa be dway eweş çendin helmet be komel qr krdnyan encamda ke ptr le heşt hezar barzani grtewe û prosekan le naw brdni be dwa dahêna, ke be enfal naw nrawn û qurbani ptr le sed û heşta û dû hezar mrovi lê kewtewe.
Thirdly, reformed alphabet based on proposal 1 & 2 & 3 & 4:
Yme, gel Kurdistan - Yraq, le hestkrdnmaneue beu djuariei neuekanman le siasetekan hkumete iek le duay iekekan le encam dan serkut krdn u stem u çeusaneuei le radebeder cewtuiane, u bybewkrdnman leu mafanei xua le azadi u ieksani u dadperueri be ademizadi bexwiun, u cendin tauan dje mrov û helmet cinosayd u paktau nejadiian le djman encamda, ke myju be degmen uynei uai be xoue biniue, ke xoian le xapur krdn ptr le cuar hezar u pynsed gund nuandue, u gorankari le bewyk frauan le Kurdistan - Yraq le rygei be zore mly koc py krdn daniwtuan ian nacar krdnian bo gorin wunas neteueian u be kar hynan cek kimiaui u ceke qedexe krauekan tr nyuneteueii le dj daniwtuan svil war helebcei wehid u Balisan u Germian u Badinan u cendin nawcei frauan tr, u be hezaran lau Kurd Feili le nyu kylgekan taqi krdneuei kimiaui u gor be komel bereu merg rapyckrdn, euaney maneuew xyzanekanian nacar kran, bo dereuei Yraq koc bken u ulatnamei Yraqiian ly sendneue u dua be duai euew cendin helmet be komel qr krdnyan encamda ke ptr le hewt hezar barzani grteue u prosekan le nau brdni be dua dahyna, ke be enfal nau nraun u qurbani ptr le sed u hewta u du hezar mrovi ly keuteue.
Firstly, in current Latin Kurdish alphabet:
Ême, gelî Kurdistan - Êraq, le hestkirdinmanewe bew dijwarîyey newekanman le siyasetekanî hikumete yek le dway yekekan le encam danî serkut kirdin û sitem û çewsanewey le radebeder çeştûyane, û bêbeşkirdinman lew mafaney xwa le azadî û yeksanî dadperwerî be ademîzadî bexşîwin, û çendîn tawanî dije mirov û helmetî cinosayd û paktawî nejadîyan le dijman encamda, ke mêjû be degmen wêney way be xowe bînîwe, ke xoyan le xapûr kirdinî pitir le çuwar hezar u pênsed gund nuwanduwe û gorankarî le beşekî firawan le Kurdistan - Êraq le rêgey be zore milê koch pê kirdinî danîştuwan, yan naçar kirdinyan bo gorînî şunasî neteweyan û be kar hênani çekî kîmyawî u çeke qedexe kirawekanî tirî nêw neteweyî le dijî danîştuwani sivîlî şarî helebcey şehîd û Balîsan û Germiyan û Badînan û çendîn nawçey firawanî tir, û be hezaran lawî Kurdî Feylî le nêw kêlgekanî taqî kirdinewey kîmyawî û gorî be komel berew merg rapêçkirdin, ewaney maneweş xêzanekanyan naçar kiran, bo derewey Êraq koç biken û wilatnamey êraqiyan lê sendinewe û dwa be dway eweş çendîn helmetî be komel qir kirdinyan encamda ke pitir le heşt hezar barzanî girtewe û pirosekanî le naw birdinî be dwa dahêna, ke be enfal naw nirawin û qurbanî pitir le sed û heşta û dû hezar mirovî lê kewtewe.
Secondly, reformed alphabet based on proposal 1 & 2:
Ême, gel Kurdistan - Êraq, le hestkrdnmanewe bew djwariyey newekanman, le syasetekan hkumete yek le dway yekekan le encam dan serkut krdn û stem û çewsanewey le radebeder çeştûyane, û bêbeşkrdnman lew mafaney xwa le azadi û yeksani û dadperweri be ademizadi bexşiwn, û çendin tawan dje mirov û helmet cinosayd û paktaw nejadiyan le djman encamda, ke mêjû be degmen wêney way be xowe biniwe, ke xoyan le xapûr krdn ptr le çuwar hezar û pênsed gund nuwanduwe u gorankari le beşêk frawan le Kurdistan - Êraq le rêgey be zore mlê koç pê krdn daniştuwan, yan naçar krdnyan bo gorin şunas neteweyan û be kar hênan çek kimyawi û çeke qedexe krawekan tr nêwneteweyi le dj daniştuwan sivîl şar helebcey şehid û Balisan û Germyan û Badinan û çendin nawçey frawan tr, û be hezaran law Kurd Feyli le nêw kêlgekan taqi krdnewey kimyawi û gor be komel berew merg rapêçkrdn, ewaney maneweş xêzanekanyan naçar kran, bo derewey Êraq koç bken û wlatnamey êraqiyan lê sendnewe û dwa be dway eweş çendin helmet be komel qr krdnyan encamda ke ptr le heşt hezar barzani grtewe û prosekan le naw brdni be dwa dahêna, ke be enfal naw nrawn û qurbani ptr le sed û heşta û dû hezar mrovi lê kewtewe.
Thirdly, reformed alphabet based on proposal 1 & 2 & 3 & 4:
Yme, gel Kurdistan - Yraq, le hestkrdnmaneue beu djuariei neuekanman le siasetekan hkumete iek le duay iekekan le encam dan serkut krdn u stem u çeusaneuei le radebeder cewtuiane, u bybewkrdnman leu mafanei xua le azadi u ieksani u dadperueri be ademizadi bexwiun, u cendin tauan dje mrov û helmet cinosayd u paktau nejadiian le djman encamda, ke myju be degmen uynei uai be xoue biniue, ke xoian le xapur krdn ptr le cuar hezar u pynsed gund nuandue, u gorankari le bewyk frauan le Kurdistan - Yraq le rygei be zore mly koc py krdn daniwtuan ian nacar krdnian bo gorin wunas neteueian u be kar hynan cek kimiaui u ceke qedexe krauekan tr nyuneteueii le dj daniwtuan svil war helebcei wehid u Balisan u Germian u Badinan u cendin nawcei frauan tr, u be hezaran lau Kurd Feili le nyu kylgekan taqi krdneuei kimiaui u gor be komel bereu merg rapyckrdn, euaney maneuew xyzanekanian nacar kran, bo dereuei Yraq koc bken u ulatnamei Yraqiian ly sendneue u dua be duai euew cendin helmet be komel qr krdnyan encamda ke ptr le hewt hezar barzani grteue u prosekan le nau brdni be dua dahyna, ke be enfal nau nraun u qurbani ptr le sed u hewta u du hezar mrovi ly keuteue.
A Proposal For Latin-Based Kurdish Alphabet (4)
If our previous suggestions accepted, then remains only two controversial letters in the alphabet: ç and ş, both directly adopted from Turkish. The negative thing with them is that they include circumflexes, something most people who propose a reformed Latin alphabet for Kurdish tend to avoid. Some have suggested diphthongs such as ch and sh, as in Yekgirtu and Izady's suggestions.
In the current latin alphabet we have c for voiced palato-alveolar affricate, (= English j) and ç for voiceless palato-alveolar affricate (= English ch). While in Yekgirtu, one of the most well-known alternatives for the current Latin-based Kurdish alphabet, instead we see j and c, respectively. As can be seen c is treated differently in the two alphabets. but since yekgirtu has j for the voiced consonant, it has adopted jh a diphthong for voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (= /si/ as in English vision).
I've got a proposal which solves both of the shortcommings i.e. neither uses a circumflexe nor a diphthong. though due to the Turkish influence it may at the first sight sound stupid but it really works. The proposal is to use c for both voiced and viceless palato-alveolar affricates. Well this is not the first case we use one letter for two consonants in Kurdish alphabet!
We already have accepted x for both ( خ and غ), h for ( ه and ح) nothing for (ء and ع) l for (ل and ڵ) r for (ر and ڕ); also p, t, k and g each represent several different consonants, many of them pure Kurdish.
but we we cannot use the same method for voiceless and voice palato-alveolar affricates? It's worth of note that the voiceless consonant is much more frequent in Kurdish vocabulary and more interestingly while most Kurdish words containing the voiceless consonant are native Kurdish words, most Kurdish words containing the voiced consonant are foreign loans (with the exeption of a handful of words where the old iranic initial platal approximant /y/ has developed to voiced palato-alveolar affricatve, and that is most likely under Persian influence.)
The second letter with a circumflexe is ş, which basically is an s with a circumflex. One must confess that this is a little bit more difficult to solve, since both the voiceless alveolar sibilant and voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant are legitimate native Kurdish consonants. Although use of the second in modern Kurdish has dramatically decreased due to many historic phonetical developments, where it has eroded (f.ex: chaw<chashma, gwê< goasha, nas<shnas, êwe<shma etc, but this does not affect our case much since there are still a lot of Kurdish words with this consonant.
Returning to the previous post, we see that there will be one letter in our proposed alphabet that will be useless (used only for a few loanwords). it is the letter /w/ which accidentally resembles much the cyrillic letter for voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant: / Ш /, used already even in the Cyrillic-based alphabet for Kurdish. I agree that at the begining it would sound difficult for many, but it is not far-fetched idea since a lot of Latin-based alphabets use different letters for different consonants.
In the current latin alphabet we have c for voiced palato-alveolar affricate, (= English j) and ç for voiceless palato-alveolar affricate (= English ch). While in Yekgirtu, one of the most well-known alternatives for the current Latin-based Kurdish alphabet, instead we see j and c, respectively. As can be seen c is treated differently in the two alphabets. but since yekgirtu has j for the voiced consonant, it has adopted jh a diphthong for voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (= /si/ as in English vision).
I've got a proposal which solves both of the shortcommings i.e. neither uses a circumflexe nor a diphthong. though due to the Turkish influence it may at the first sight sound stupid but it really works. The proposal is to use c for both voiced and viceless palato-alveolar affricates. Well this is not the first case we use one letter for two consonants in Kurdish alphabet!
We already have accepted x for both ( خ and غ), h for ( ه and ح) nothing for (ء and ع) l for (ل and ڵ) r for (ر and ڕ); also p, t, k and g each represent several different consonants, many of them pure Kurdish.
but we we cannot use the same method for voiceless and voice palato-alveolar affricates? It's worth of note that the voiceless consonant is much more frequent in Kurdish vocabulary and more interestingly while most Kurdish words containing the voiceless consonant are native Kurdish words, most Kurdish words containing the voiced consonant are foreign loans (with the exeption of a handful of words where the old iranic initial platal approximant /y/ has developed to voiced palato-alveolar affricatve, and that is most likely under Persian influence.)
The second letter with a circumflexe is ş, which basically is an s with a circumflex. One must confess that this is a little bit more difficult to solve, since both the voiceless alveolar sibilant and voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant are legitimate native Kurdish consonants. Although use of the second in modern Kurdish has dramatically decreased due to many historic phonetical developments, where it has eroded (f.ex: chaw<chashma, gwê< goasha, nas<shnas, êwe<shma etc, but this does not affect our case much since there are still a lot of Kurdish words with this consonant.
Returning to the previous post, we see that there will be one letter in our proposed alphabet that will be useless (used only for a few loanwords). it is the letter /w/ which accidentally resembles much the cyrillic letter for voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant: / Ш /, used already even in the Cyrillic-based alphabet for Kurdish. I agree that at the begining it would sound difficult for many, but it is not far-fetched idea since a lot of Latin-based alphabets use different letters for different consonants.
A Proposal For Latin-Based Kurdish Alphabet (3)
In this post two other issues related to Kurdish orthographic system are discussed.
1) Ancient Iranic inter/post-vocalic /p/ and /m/ have developed in two different ways in modern Kurdish dialects. In northern Kurdish (Kurmanji), the first one has developed into /w/ and the second one into /v/, while in Central Kurdish (Sorani) and Southern Kurdish, both have developed only into /w/. This may be due to influence from other Iranic and non-Iranic languages. In any case, there are not many languages which have both /w/ and /v/ simultaneously, as northern Kurdish does.
At the same time, the homogenization of the two vowels does never cause ambiguity in the central and southern dialects. In other words, here we are facing a choice between two options: keeping both /w/ and /v/ which reflects some traces of archaism (distinction between / p/ and /m/ reflected as /w/ and /v/) on one hand, and on the other ''simplification''. Personally, I would rather go for simplification.
Examples:
Çaw, instead of Çav
Naw, instead of Nav
Netewe, instead of Neteve,
Expetions: But, of course, we can keep the letter /v/ for numerous foreign loanwords in Kurdish such as visa, vitamin, video, sivil, etc, as well as native Kurdish words which exist only in one form, with /v/ and not with w; such as tavge, govar, mrov, bve, dever, etc
2) In Arabic-based alphabet for Kurdish, unlike as in the current Latin-based alphabet, there is only one symbol characterizing i/y and u/w, respectively. This is true even for other languages written in the same alphabet such as Persian and Arabic. As long as the easier way, i.e. as in Arabic-based script, functions as it is expected and never does cause ambiguity in reading and writing of Kurdish language why should not keep it even in the Latin-based alphabet too?
Examples:
Currently: Diyar
Proposal: Diar (evident)
Currently: Yar
Proposal: Iar (companion)
Currently: Televiziyon
Proposal: Televizion (television)
Alternatively:
In my opinion, it makes the alphabet both much easier and prettier, and creates no confusions at all since Kurdish phonetic system allows us to choose and effectively use such a method.
We can still keep the letter /w/ ([anlternaively] /u/) and /y/ for foreign proper names and loanwords such as ''Washington''/''Samsung'', and ''New York''.
Besides, one can even adopt the symbol /y/ for the mid front unrounded vowel which in current Kurdish alphabet is shown with a diacritic mark as /ê/.
Examples:
Currently: Jêr
Proposal: Jyr (under)
Currently: Belên
Proposal: Belyn (oath)
Currently: Êsk
Proposal: Ysk (bone)
Currently: Hewlêr
Proposal: Hewlyr (Erbil)
1) Ancient Iranic inter/post-vocalic /p/ and /m/ have developed in two different ways in modern Kurdish dialects. In northern Kurdish (Kurmanji), the first one has developed into /w/ and the second one into /v/, while in Central Kurdish (Sorani) and Southern Kurdish, both have developed only into /w/. This may be due to influence from other Iranic and non-Iranic languages. In any case, there are not many languages which have both /w/ and /v/ simultaneously, as northern Kurdish does.
At the same time, the homogenization of the two vowels does never cause ambiguity in the central and southern dialects. In other words, here we are facing a choice between two options: keeping both /w/ and /v/ which reflects some traces of archaism (distinction between / p/ and /m/ reflected as /w/ and /v/) on one hand, and on the other ''simplification''. Personally, I would rather go for simplification.
Examples:
Çaw, instead of Çav
Naw, instead of Nav
Netewe, instead of Neteve,
Expetions: But, of course, we can keep the letter /v/ for numerous foreign loanwords in Kurdish such as visa, vitamin, video, sivil, etc, as well as native Kurdish words which exist only in one form, with /v/ and not with w; such as tavge, govar, mrov, bve, dever, etc
2) In Arabic-based alphabet for Kurdish, unlike as in the current Latin-based alphabet, there is only one symbol characterizing i/y and u/w, respectively. This is true even for other languages written in the same alphabet such as Persian and Arabic. As long as the easier way, i.e. as in Arabic-based script, functions as it is expected and never does cause ambiguity in reading and writing of Kurdish language why should not keep it even in the Latin-based alphabet too?
Examples:
Currently: zawa
Proposal zaua (bridegroom)
Currently: Wan
Proposal: Uan (a city)
Currently: naw
Proposal: nau (name)
Currently: Diyar
Proposal: Diar (evident)
Currently: Yar
Proposal: Iar (companion)
Currently: Televiziyon
Proposal: Televizion (television)
Alternatively:
Currently: Bûk
Proposal: Bwk (bride)
Currently: Kerkûk
Proposal: Kerkwk (A city)
In my opinion, it makes the alphabet both much easier and prettier, and creates no confusions at all since Kurdish phonetic system allows us to choose and effectively use such a method.
We can still keep the letter /w/ ([anlternaively] /u/) and /y/ for foreign proper names and loanwords such as ''Washington''/''Samsung'', and ''New York''.
Besides, one can even adopt the symbol /y/ for the mid front unrounded vowel which in current Kurdish alphabet is shown with a diacritic mark as /ê/.
Examples:
Currently: Jêr
Proposal: Jyr (under)
Currently: Belên
Proposal: Belyn (oath)
Currently: Êsk
Proposal: Ysk (bone)
Currently: Hewlêr
Proposal: Hewlyr (Erbil)
A Proposal For Latin-Based Kurdish Alphabet (2)
As Celadet Bedrxan had once advised us, Kurds ''need to develop a writing system that allows all speakers hailing from every Kurdish dialect to use that writing system''. The Kurdish alphabet must be a means of unification of various Kurdish dialects and vernaculars. This means while every Kurd should feel comfortable to write and read in Kurdish according to his/her native dialect, still other Kurds too must be able to easily read and understand it.
One of annoying features of writing in Kurdish caused by various regional variations is the different renderings of izafe marker:
Northern Kurdish uses -a/-ê for grammatical masculine and feminine respectively.
Central Kurdish uses -i
Further south, no izafe marker is used
In southernmost regions of Kurdistan, -ê is used.
(all used for both possessive and descriptive cases).
Looking for powerful oriental languages, such as Arabic and Persian we see this problem has long being solved through an easy solution. Namely, by ''not indicating izafe marker''.
Thus while in Eastern Persian (Dari) ''-î'' is used, in western Persian (Farsi) ''-ê'' is used when reading an izafe compound, however Persian scholars has solved this distinction by a simple trick: They do not indicate the i/ê izafe when writing at all. Thus same compound may be read by an eastern Persian speaker as ''-i'' while a Western Persian speaker reads it as ''-ê''.
For example, زبان فارسی (transliteration: Zabân Fârsi), could be read ''zabâni fârsi'' by an eastern speaker, and ''zabânê fârsi'' by a western speaker.
Same method could be used even for Kurdish; While keeping regional spoken variations when reading a text, Kurds can at least when coming to writing, use a unified standard writing system as in Persian.
Some examples in Kurdish:
Kurmanci: Rojhelata Kurdistan, Xebata pîroz, Alaya rengîn
Current standard Sorani: Rojhelatî Kurdistan, Xebatî pîroz, Alay rengîn
Southern Sorani: Rojhelat Kurdistan, Xebat pîroz, Alay rengîn
Southern Kurdish: Rojhelatê Kurdistan, Xebatê pîroz, Alayê rengîn
Proposal: Rojhelat Kurdistan, Xebat piroz, Alay rengin (But the reader is free as to how he/she wishes to read it)
If this proposal is accepted, we have been able to put one more major step towards standardization of Kurdish and unification of its written variations. Furthermore, one my expect to use this method in other regional distinctions appearing in Kurdish such as case-markers which nowadays appear only in Kurmanji dialect.
It would not be impossible that in future, depending on strength of media, social, economical and other factors, a specific form of ''standard colloquial Kurdish'' will emerge which could even be chosen as ''official standard form of reading Kurdish'' texts.
(See part I)
Scythians in Ancient Kurdistan
The earliest known record of Scythians in ancient Kurdistan dates back to 819 B.C., when a king of Nairi, an Urartian vassaldom, south of lake Van, is mentioned whose name was ''Sa-ti-ri-a'' (from old Iranic <*Xsathria: king).
Decades later we read about Scythians as lords of the lands of Urartians and Mannaeans (corresponding to much of Kurdistan), during which they had established good relations with Assyrian kings, and were often in conflict with Median tribes (Hamadan-Rey area), who inhabited the regions to the southeast of the lands under Scythian hegemony. Kimmerians (a group of Kurdistani Scythians) conquered as far as Ellipi in what is nowadays south of modern Kirmanshah).
After the fall of Assyria, -which recent archeological evidence indicates that unlike the traditional common belief, happened without Median participation -, Scythians could even proceed eastwards to conquer and rule the Median lands for nearly three decades. Although according to ancient accounts, Median king Cyaxares intoxicated the Scythian nobles, the Scythians and Parthians under a Scythian queen, Zarina, launched attacks against the Medians.
Again, decades later, we read about Scythians in Kurdistan: A significant Scythian kingdom during this period was Skythenoi (as known by Xenophon, Sacassani by Pliny/Livy and Sakasene by Ptolemy). Its capital Gymnias was located in northern Kurdistan, (modern Bayburt). Strabo even mentions a smaller Scythian kingdom recorded by him as Sagapeni, located between Elymais and Adiabene, the latter itself ruled by a Scythian dynasty called Shiraks (see here).
Decades later we read about Scythians as lords of the lands of Urartians and Mannaeans (corresponding to much of Kurdistan), during which they had established good relations with Assyrian kings, and were often in conflict with Median tribes (Hamadan-Rey area), who inhabited the regions to the southeast of the lands under Scythian hegemony. Kimmerians (a group of Kurdistani Scythians) conquered as far as Ellipi in what is nowadays south of modern Kirmanshah).
After the fall of Assyria, -which recent archeological evidence indicates that unlike the traditional common belief, happened without Median participation -, Scythians could even proceed eastwards to conquer and rule the Median lands for nearly three decades. Although according to ancient accounts, Median king Cyaxares intoxicated the Scythian nobles, the Scythians and Parthians under a Scythian queen, Zarina, launched attacks against the Medians.
Again, decades later, we read about Scythians in Kurdistan: A significant Scythian kingdom during this period was Skythenoi (as known by Xenophon, Sacassani by Pliny/Livy and Sakasene by Ptolemy). Its capital Gymnias was located in northern Kurdistan, (modern Bayburt). Strabo even mentions a smaller Scythian kingdom recorded by him as Sagapeni, located between Elymais and Adiabene, the latter itself ruled by a Scythian dynasty called Shiraks (see here).
The Hurro-Urartian Substratum in Kurdish (3)
We have so far discussed two aspects of Hurro-Urartian substratum in Kurdish; the place-names and vocabulary.
This time we will look into morphological traces of Urartian in Kurdish.
Nominal morphology:
Out of nine noun cases in Urartian six have nearly identical Kurdish equivalents:
1) Absolutive: In Urartian, subject of intransitive verbs, direct objects and predicate nouns take no suffixes as in Kurdish. In plural Urartian uses ''-le'' and Kurdish ''-êl''.
2) Ergative: In Urartian subject of transitive verbs take /-shê/ suffix. Similarly in Kurdish, subject of transitive verbs take /-ê/ suffix; note that according to Kurdish historical phonetic changes /sh/ has regularly developed into /-h or nil/ ( hence we got: -shê>-ê). Under foreign languages influence (Turkish, Persian, Arabic) this ergative case ending is eroding in Kurdish, and it remains only in a few northern Kurdish variants.
3) Genitive: in Urartian /-i/-ie--ei/ was used. In Kurdish /-i/ is used especially in central Kurdish.
4) Dative: in Urartian -e/-ie/ was used. Similarly in Kurdish -ê is used, especially in northern Kurdish.
5) Locative: In Urartian /-a/ was used. Similarly in Kurdish /-a/ is used, especially in central Kurdish. In northern Kurdish, probably under influence of foreign languages /-da/ is used.
6) Comitative: in Urartian /-rani/ was used. The Kurdish equivalent is /-ra/, especially in northern Kurdish.
7) For directive cases Urartian used /-edi/, whereas Kurdish /-ê/ could be a later contraction of it.
8) and 9) for Urartian instrumental ablative and ablative, there does not remain any case endings in modern Kurdish.
Urartian and Kurdish agree in another morphological feature, called ''suffixaufnahme''.
Both languages follow SOV order in their syntax. Both use ya/ye as relative pronouns.
Verbal morphology:
In the verbal morphology, we find a very interesting archaism in central Kurdish. In order to create passive forms of transitive verbs, it uses a /-re-/-ra-/ morpheme, deriving from Hurrian /iri/ and Urartian /-auri/. Northern Kurdish uses an auxilary verb 'hatin' (Indo-Iranic feature?), and southern Kurdish uses /-iya-/ which is common in both Hurrian and old Iranic. However, the morpheme /iya/ is not limited only to south Kurdish, as it is also used more and less, in all other dialects.
Imperative: Both Urartian and Kurdish use an /-a/ suffix after verb roots to form imperative forms.
Causative: in Hurrian ''-ann'' is used, as in Kurdish ''-an'' or ''-and''.
In Urartian, verbal roots of intransitive verbs are marked with / -a/ just as in Kurdish, while verbal roots of transitive verbs are marked with /-u/, where according to Kurdish historical phonology /u>i/, its modern Kurdish equivalent is /-i/.
In Hurrian perfect tens is made by adding /osh/ to verbal root. In central Kurdish, /u[h]/ is sused (sh>h).
As can be seen, Kurdish language appears to be a creole language formed after an amalgamation of Hurro-Urartian and Iranic languages. The Hurro-Urartian layer, showing itself as an older substratum in which Urartian is stronger, while the Iranic layer, which began undoubtedly with the Scytho-Cimmerian invasion of Urartu emerges as a superstratum. The Iranic layer was further intensified with a wave of clearly identifiable middle Persian loanwords under the Sassanid period, during which, Iranic aristocrats played a prominent role in local affairs. The Islamic conquest of Kurdistan, resulting in collapse of the Sassanids, however, rescued Kurdish from further Iranicization, forever.
This time we will look into morphological traces of Urartian in Kurdish.
Nominal morphology:
Out of nine noun cases in Urartian six have nearly identical Kurdish equivalents:
1) Absolutive: In Urartian, subject of intransitive verbs, direct objects and predicate nouns take no suffixes as in Kurdish. In plural Urartian uses ''-le'' and Kurdish ''-êl''.
2) Ergative: In Urartian subject of transitive verbs take /-shê/ suffix. Similarly in Kurdish, subject of transitive verbs take /-ê/ suffix; note that according to Kurdish historical phonetic changes /sh/ has regularly developed into /-h or nil/ ( hence we got: -shê>-ê). Under foreign languages influence (Turkish, Persian, Arabic) this ergative case ending is eroding in Kurdish, and it remains only in a few northern Kurdish variants.
3) Genitive: in Urartian /-i/-ie--ei/ was used. In Kurdish /-i/ is used especially in central Kurdish.
4) Dative: in Urartian -e/-ie/ was used. Similarly in Kurdish -ê is used, especially in northern Kurdish.
5) Locative: In Urartian /-a/ was used. Similarly in Kurdish /-a/ is used, especially in central Kurdish. In northern Kurdish, probably under influence of foreign languages /-da/ is used.
6) Comitative: in Urartian /-rani/ was used. The Kurdish equivalent is /-ra/, especially in northern Kurdish.
7) For directive cases Urartian used /-edi/, whereas Kurdish /-ê/ could be a later contraction of it.
8) and 9) for Urartian instrumental ablative and ablative, there does not remain any case endings in modern Kurdish.
Urartian and Kurdish agree in another morphological feature, called ''suffixaufnahme''.
Both languages follow SOV order in their syntax. Both use ya/ye as relative pronouns.
Verbal morphology:
In the verbal morphology, we find a very interesting archaism in central Kurdish. In order to create passive forms of transitive verbs, it uses a /-re-/-ra-/ morpheme, deriving from Hurrian /iri/ and Urartian /-auri/. Northern Kurdish uses an auxilary verb 'hatin' (Indo-Iranic feature?), and southern Kurdish uses /-iya-/ which is common in both Hurrian and old Iranic. However, the morpheme /iya/ is not limited only to south Kurdish, as it is also used more and less, in all other dialects.
Imperative: Both Urartian and Kurdish use an /-a/ suffix after verb roots to form imperative forms.
Jussive: Both Urartian and Kurdish (plural third person) take /-in/ after the verbal root.
Intransitive verbs in Urartian just as in Kurdish (and Iranic) take personal enclitics (identifying the subject) after the verbal root. But, what is more interesting is the use of personal suffixes after transitive verbal roots to identify direct objects; this is typical for Kurdish, especially the northern Kurdish, where exactly like Urartian, it is only personal suffixes of direct objects that follow the verbal roots, while no personal suffixes for subjects are used.
Intransitive verbs in Urartian just as in Kurdish (and Iranic) take personal enclitics (identifying the subject) after the verbal root. But, what is more interesting is the use of personal suffixes after transitive verbal roots to identify direct objects; this is typical for Kurdish, especially the northern Kurdish, where exactly like Urartian, it is only personal suffixes of direct objects that follow the verbal roots, while no personal suffixes for subjects are used.
Causative: in Hurrian ''-ann'' is used, as in Kurdish ''-an'' or ''-and''.
In Urartian, verbal roots of intransitive verbs are marked with / -a/ just as in Kurdish, while verbal roots of transitive verbs are marked with /-u/, where according to Kurdish historical phonology /u>i/, its modern Kurdish equivalent is /-i/.
In Hurrian perfect tens is made by adding /osh/ to verbal root. In central Kurdish, /u[h]/ is sused (sh>h).
As can be seen, Kurdish language appears to be a creole language formed after an amalgamation of Hurro-Urartian and Iranic languages. The Hurro-Urartian layer, showing itself as an older substratum in which Urartian is stronger, while the Iranic layer, which began undoubtedly with the Scytho-Cimmerian invasion of Urartu emerges as a superstratum. The Iranic layer was further intensified with a wave of clearly identifiable middle Persian loanwords under the Sassanid period, during which, Iranic aristocrats played a prominent role in local affairs. The Islamic conquest of Kurdistan, resulting in collapse of the Sassanids, however, rescued Kurdish from further Iranicization, forever.
A Proposal For Latin-Based Kurdish Alphabet (1)
Some examples:
Currently: Silêmanî
Proposal: Slêmani (a city)
Currently: Bira
Proposal: Bra (brother)
Currently: Girîng
Proposal: Gring (important)
Currently: Xir
Proposal: Xr (round)
Currently: Sitiran
Proposal: Stran (song)
Currently: Silaw
Proposal: Slaw (Hi)
Currently: Firîn
Proposal: Frin (to fly)
Currently: Jiwan
Proposal: Jwan (love talk, date)
Currently: Jiyan
Proposal: Jyan (life)
Currently: Hewir
Proposal: Hewr (cloud)
The Hurro-Urartian Substratum in Kurdish (2)
We have already discussed Hurro-Urartian origin of majority of the place-names in Kurdistan.
This time we are going to elaborate the Hurro-Urartian remains in vocabulary of Kurdish, which survive as a strong substratum. The process of aryanization of Kurdistan, though superficially, began after spread of the first waves of the Indo-Iranic-speaking tribes in the early first millennium BC. The pioneers were Scytho-Cimmerians who invaded the kingdom of Urartu. But it is also known that there were Indo-Iranic horse-trainers in the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni, about a thousand years earlier).
The pre-Iranic substratum in Kurdish is so significant that it would be safe to consider Kurdish as a creole language. Indeed, there are hardly any cases where there is not a ''native'' Kurdish equivalent for the superimposed Irano-Kurdish words. With Irano-Kurdish it is meant words which could originally be traced to proto-Iranic but over time have changed after Kurdish pohonetic laws.
Since after World War II, linguists, due to lack of interest in Kurdish studies, have often neglected the pre-Iranic substratum in Kurdish and focused merely on the Irano-Kurdish layer. Of the Urartian language is not much known either (about 300 words), however, a strong majority of its known words have a identical or at least close equivalent in Kurdish. Urartian though closely related to Hurrian, sound more similar to Kurdish than does Hurrian; this may depend on the fact that Hurrian was spoken at an earlier time period. Mannaean was another Hurro-Urartian-related dialect spoken south of lake Urmia.
It is also worth noting that Armenian scholars have found a few Urartian words in Armenian, which appear to be borrowings via Kurdish.
1)
Urartian: Ale (he says)
Kurdish: Ale ئەڵێ (he says)
Urartian: Shuri (sword)
Kurdish: Shur شوور (sword)
Armenian: Sowr
Urartian: Kuri (foot, leg)
Kurdish: Qul قول (foot, leg)
Urartian: xur (deep)
Kurdish: xur/qul/kur خووڕ/قوول/کوور (deep),
Hurrian: agul (carve)
Kurdish: 'kol-[în]' کۆڵین : (to digg), kêla: (plow)
Urartian: shini (you, plural)
Kurdish: hin هین/هون (you, plural, cf. sh>h a regular sound change in Kurdish)
Urartian: apa (he/she/it)
Kurdish: awa, aw/ava, av cf. Kurdish p>w and p>v ئەوە (he/she/it)
Urartian: Sale (kid)
Kurdish: Zaro زارۆ (kid)
Armenian: jar (he-goat)
Urartian: tali (stick)
Kurdish: têla (stick, cf. Kurdish a>ê)
10)
Urartian: papi/bab/babani (mountain top)
Kurdish: pope پۆپە (head)/ bani بانی (mountain top)
Urartian: qal/kar (kill/slay, subjugate)
Kurdish: qir قڕ (kill, slay, cf Kurdish a>i)
Hurrian: shur (war)
Kurdish: sher شەڕ (war)
Urartian: bidia (turn)
Kurdish: bada-n بادان (turn)
Urartian: da (give)
Kurdish: da, دا (give, Iranic and other IE languages have a similar lexeme)
Urartian: xus/hush (throw)
Kurdish: xis-[tin]/hawish-[tin] خستن/هاویشتن (throw, cf Kurdish u>i)
Urartian: karbe (rock, stone)
Kurdish: karra کەڕا (rock, stone)
Armenian: qar (rock, stone)
Urartian: quira (earth, dust)
Kurdish: qur, xol قوڕ/خۆڵ (earth, dust)
Hurrian: arte (earth, soil)
Kurdish: ard ئەرد/هەرد (earth, soil, cf Kurdish rt > rd)
Urartian: $erab (dry)
Kurdish: chora چۆڕا (dry)
Armenian: caraw (dry)
20)
Urartian: eue (and)
Kurdish: u ئوو (and) but see even Iranic ''ut''
Urartian: tur ( to leave)
Kurdish: tor-[an], تۆران to leave
Urartian: ul (to go)
Kurdish: lu-wan لوان (to go)
Urartian: ulhu (order)
Kurdish: ol ئۆل (religion)
Urartian: bura (slave, servant)
Kurdish: bora بۆرە (commoner, low-class)
Urartian: xarxar (destroy)
Kurdish: xirxal خرخاڵ (destroyed)
Urartian: ale (but)
Kurdish: lê لێ (but)
Urartian: duli (grape)
Kurdish: trê, tirî ترێ (grape, cf. l>r and u>i)
Armenian: toli (grape)
Urartian: kapi (capacity measure)
Kurdish: kap/qap کاپ/قاپ (capacity measure)
Urartian: nah (to bring)
Kurdish: hên-an/han-în هانین/هێنان (to bring)
30)
Urartian: pare (toward)
Kurdish: pîr پیر (toward),
Urartian: pile (water canal)
Kurdish: pil-û-sk پلووسک (rain canal)
Urartian: tan (lay down)
Kurdish: dan-[an] دانان (lay down)
Hurrian: id- (hit, strike)
Kurdish: -d- (hit strike); ([lê] d-[an])
Urartian: teq- (to thump, to break)
Kurdish: teq-[în] تەقین (to thump, to break)
Urartian: uzgi (power, strength)
Kurdish: wuze وزە (power, strength, cf. Kurdish u- > w-)
Urartian: mari (lord, horseman)
Kurdish: mir میر (lord, compare also with the Semitic ''Amir'')
Urartian: shu/shia (to go)
Kurdish: chu, چوو (to go, cf. also Iranic ''shiyaw'')
Urartian: euri (lord)
Kurdish: hêwir هێور (brave)
Urartian: xarari (calm)
Kurdish: oqre ئۆقرە (calm),
Armenian:
40)
Urartian: zar (orchard)
Kurdish: zar زار (orchard)
Armenian: car (tree)
Urartian: ur (to place down)
Kurdish: wer-[in], وەرین (to place down, cf. Kurdish u-> w- )
Urartian: wal, (to win)
Kurdish: wêr-an وێران (to dare)
Urartian: zelbi (descendant)
Kurdish: zol زۆڵ (bastard)
Urartian: zeld, (to shatter the enemies)
Kurdish: zal زاڵ (to shatter the enemies)
Urartian: qarqar (throat)
Kurdish: qurg قورگ (throat, compare also with the Irano-Kurdish garû, and Persian galu, there is also another word in Kurdish: qurquroska)
Hurrian: kut/kud (to make fall, to kill)
Urartian: qot (piece)
Kurdish: kut کوت (piece), kut-a کوتان (to smash), kud (to kill)
Urartian: xubi (valley)
Kurdish: qopi قۆپی (valley, vale, plain)
Urartian: xare (to march, to raid)
Kurdish: xar غار (to march, to raid)
Hurrian: Hiuri (smoke)
Kurdish: Hulm هوڵم (steam)
50)
Urartian: $ue (river, lake)
Kurdish: chom/gom چۆم/گۆم (rive lake)
Armenian: cov (lake)
Hurrian: tiv (word)
Urartian: tiw (to speak)
Kurdish: diw-an دوان (to speak)
Urartian: abeli/aweli (attach, increase)
Kurdish: awale/awela ئاواڵە/ئاوەڵا (open)
Urartian: an, (no)
Kurdish: na, نا (no; there is also a similar equivalent in Iranic)
Urartian: ari-beri
Kurdish: birin برن (to carry, there is also a similar equivalent in Iranic)
Urartian: ewani/ebani (land)
Kurdish: -wan وان (suffix used after place-names)
Urartian: kulune (side)
Kurdish: qulin-chk قولینچک/ qurne قوڕنە (side, corner)
Armenian: koln
Urartian: man (to stay)
Kurdish: man مان (to stay), (resembles even Iranic, cf. New Persian ''mandan'')
Urartian: mana <Iranic (measure unite, mina)
Kurdish: man<Iranic (measure unite, mina)
Urartian: me (prohibitive particle)
Kurdish: me مە (prohibitive particle)
60)
Urartian: pahi (cattle)
Hurrian: pedari (cattle)
Kassite: badar (bull, cattle)
Kurdish: patal پاتاڵ (cattle)
Armenian: paxre
Urartian: par, to take off
Kurdish: pirr [-dan] پڕ (to take off, cf. Kurdish a>i)
Urartian: kamn (old, earlier)
Kurdish: kavn/kawn کەڤن/کەون (old, cf. m>v but also Iranic ''kohan'' which has led to Kurdish ''kon'')
Urartian: pe? (under)
Kurdish: pe? پێ (under, foot, cf. even Iranic pey)
Urartian: shid (build)
Kurdish: chê-[kirin], چێ (build cf, kurdish d>nil)
Hurrian: awari
Kurdish: awari ئەواری (land, country, field, cf. kurdawari, کوردەواری / warê me وارێ مە)
(Armenian agarak has been suggested as an Armenian loan from 'awari'. Kurdish has even 'garak' with the same meaning).
Urartian: ur (territory)
Urartian: qapqari
Kurdish: gamaro (p>w>m cf Kurdish ziman<ziwan<zban)
Urartian: sher (hide)
Kurdish: sher/shar شێر/وەشارتن (hide)
Urartian: quldi (uninhabited)
Kurdish: kawil (کاول) (annihilate,destruction)
Urartian: ar- (give)
Kurdish: ar- (give, dialectal as in Slêmanî, for example: ''bi-ar-ê'': بیەرێ ''give him'')
70)
Urartian: ture (destroy)
Kurdish: ture تووڕە (angry)
Urartian: aba (desire)
Kurdish: awat ئاوات (desire), aw-in ئەوین (to love)
Urartian: ada (again)
Kurdish: idi ئیدی (another, anymore)
Urartian: shal-i (year)
Kurdish: sal ساڵ (year, but Iranian ''sard'', New Persian has also ''sal'')
Armenian: tari
Urartian: šeh-i/eri/e, living
Kurdish: zhiyar ژیار (living)
Urartian: arnu-ia (come to the aid of)
Kurdish: hana هانا (come to the aid of, cf Kurdish a- >ha- )
Urartian: lak- (to destroy)
Kurdish: Rûx-[an] رووخان (to destroy)
Urartian: 'are (granary)
Kurdish: harr هاڕ (granary, cf Kurdish ha-<-a, notice 'zimharr' زمهاڕ, meaning 'winter granary')
Urartian: ieshti (here)
Kurdish: hêsthte هێشتە (now)
Urartian: meshe (part, tribute, share)
Kurdish: mûche مووچە (part, tribute, share)
80)
Urartian: pi$ushe (joy)
Kurdish: pishû پشوو (holyday, vacation)
Hurrian: sheshe (six)
Kurdish: shesh شەش (six, but it is the same even in Iranic)
Urartian: izidu (admonish, command)
Kurdish: ezidi ئێزیدی (name of a native religion in Kurdistan)
urartian: yarani (kind of cultic building, altar)
Kurdish: yari یاری (name of a native religion in Kurdistan)
Urartian: aleu (dignity)
Kurdish: alewi ئالەوی (name of a native religion in Kurdistan)
Urartian and Hurrian: /-i/, /-iye/ (his, her, its)
Kurdish: /-i/, /-y/ ی (his, her, its)
Hurrian: /-v/ (your)
Kurdish: /-w/ و (your)
Urartian: ushanu (award, bestow, feel affection for )
Kurdish: wuchan وچان (rest, reprieve)
Urartian: napahia (submission, bondage, domestication)
Kurdish: nawi نەوی (low, a low level, position or degree), (p>w)
Urartian: tur (defeat, destroy)
Kurdish: dor- دۆڕ (defeat)
90)
Urartian: sal-zi (steep, abrupt)
Kurdish: sila سڵا (height)
Urartian: sil-e (woman, doughter)
Kurdish: selar سەلار (mistress of the house, beautiful woman) (note ''Selardi'', a lunar goddess of Urartu)
Urartian: lutu (woman)
Kurdish: lute لووتە (quoquettish woman)
Urartian: uldie (vineyard)
Kurdish: lote لۆتە (grapes hanged in order to be sun dried in a vineyard)
Urartian: nikidu (water)
Kurdish: niqdo/niqût نقووت/نقدۆ (water infiltration, water dropping, water penetration), (plus some other cognates of the word)
Urartian: kan/kain (in front of)
Kurdish: kin کن (in front of, near) (but cf. also Iranic ''kenar'')
Urartian: haš-ia: (be interested in)
Kurdish: haz حەز (be interested in, love, like)
Urartian: d-u-: (do, cause to do)
Kurdish: da/di: ده/د (do, cause to do, used as a preffix for verbs)
Urartian: shalur (medlar)
Kurdish: shalor شەلۆر (nectarine)
Armenian: salor (plum) (clearly borrowed via Kurdish)
Urartian: mure (house)
Kurdish: mal ماڵ (house)
100)
Urartian: urishi (weapon)
Kurdish: hereshe هەڕەشە (threat), /(there is also ''huruzhim'': هوروژم attack)
Hurrian: shini (two)
Kurdish: shingil شنگڵ (twin, twin fruit)
Urartian: egur-hu (free)
Kurdish: xorayi خۆرایی (free)
Urartian: bad-gul (surround)
Kurdish: bawe-xulê باوەخولێ (turn around, also a kids game)
Urartian: aish-ti (leap, jump)
Kurdish: hej-an هەژان (quake)
Urartian: ibirani (whole, complete, full)
Kurdish: pirani پڕانی (majority)
Hurrian: hinzur (apple? pear?)
Kurdish: hencor هەنجۆر (unripe melon)
Urartian: kut-u (reach)
Kurdish: (geh<*ged) گەهشتن/گەیشتن (reach)
Urartian: ai/ay: (look, take care)
Kurdish: aw-ir ئاوڕ (look)
Urartian: di/erasia (fear)
Kurdish: tirs ترس (fear, but cf. also Iranic ''tars'')
110)
Urartian: Ti/er-usi, measure for liquid
Kurdish: Telîs?تەلیس measure of unit
Hurrian: ben
Kassite: ban
Kurdish: minal مناڵ (child)
Kassite: nadz (shade)
Kurdish: nisê نسێ (shade)
Kassite: ulam (son, child)
Urartian: alaue (man)
Kurdish: law لاو (young boy)
Hurrian: çugi
Kassite: tsugi
Kurdish: chuk چووک (small)
Hurrian: ewri (dog)
Kurdish wer-în وەرین (barking of dog)
Hurrian: shiye (watery)
Kurdish: she شە (moisture)
Urartian: zainua (high)
Kurdish: zinar زنار (high cliff, high boulder)
Hurrian: shalmi (ashes, to burn)
Kurdish zhilemo ژیلەمۆ (burning ashes)
Urartian: amash (burnt)
Kurdish mêsh مێش (burnt ashes) (cf. ê<a)
120)
Hurrian: puhi (nose)
Kurdish: (kepû) کەپۆ (nose)
Urartian: shepuiaru (spoil)
Kurdish: sheprêwشپڕێو (disorderly)
Urartian: mesh- (distribute, share)
Kurdish: wesh-[an] وەشان (distribute, share)
Urartian: teribi (monument)
Kurdish: tirb ترب (monument, grave) (not be confused with Arabic 'turbat': soil)
Hurrian: fur-i (viw)
Urartian: wur-i (view)
Kurdish: wuria وریا (viewer, careful), awur ئاووڕ (sight), (even the Kurdish verb ''ruwan''-[in] (view) is likely connected to the Urartian ''wur'', rarther than being a metathesis for Iranic ''negar'')
Hurrian: halv- (enclose)
Kurdish: hal- هاڵ (enclose)
Urartian: kul-me (wealth, prosperity)
Kurdish: kel-k کەڵک (profitable, usefulness)
Hurrian: pâl (false)
Kurdish: fêl فێڵ (fraud)
Hurrian: tapsh- (destroy)
Kurdish: tawjm تەوژم (pressure), tapi (destroy)
Hurrian: apxe (louse)
Kurdish: aspe ئەسپێ (louse)
130)
Hurrian: kapp- (fill)
Kurdish: kipp کپ (filled)
Hurrian: azhoge (meal)
Kurdish: azhge/zig (stomach)
Hurrian: kul- (to speak)
Kurdish: qul- قوول (to speak aloud)
Hurrian: timeri (black)
Kurdish: tem تەم (darkness)
Urartian: tara-gie (powerful, strong)
Kurdish: daraqat دەرەقەت (to be powerful, to be strong)
Urartian: tam-hu (eliminate separate)
Kurdish: toq-[andin]<tawq (terrorize, frighten)
Urartian: shi-u (carry away)
Kurdish: shi-[andin] (send)
Urartian: anda-ni (right)
Kurdish: and ئاند (right)
Urartian: irb-u (take away grab)
Kurdish: rev-[andin]/rif-[andin] (take away, grab) (but cf. also Iranian 'robudan', take away, grab)
Urartian: pit- (beat apart, destroy)
Kurdish: pis-/pichr- (beat apart, destroy)
140)
Urartian: tishni (heart)
Kurdish: dine دنە (encourage) (cf. t > d & sh > nil)
Urartian: ti-ni (name)
Kurdish: deng دەنگ (voice)
Urartian: bauše (word)
Kurdish: wuše وشە (word)
Urartian: durba (revolt, rebel)
Kurdish: tola (revenge)
Urartian: hut-ia (to ask)
Kurdish: qut-abî (student)
Hurrian: fir (remove, untie)
Kurdish: fir, firê (throw)
Hurrian: halme (singing)
Kurdish: hore هۆرە (singing)
Hurrian: havur (heaven)
Kurdish: hawr (cloud), (note also Indo-Iranic abra)
Urartian: agu (lead away) (of IE origin?)
Kurdish: ajo-[tin] ئاژۆتن (lead away, drive)
Hurrian: asti (woman)
Kurdish: astê (name of a beloved woman in Kurdish folklore)
150)
Hurrian: tav/(-b) (to cast metal)
Kurdish: taw (thaw, melt)
Hurrian: ai (if)
Kurdish: ai (if)
Hurrian: alilan (lament)
Kurdish: lalan (lament)
Hurrian: çabalgi (fault)
Kurdish: çapal چەپەڵ (dirty)
Hurrian: xiyari (all)
Kurdish: xir (all)
Hurrian: çere (donkey)
Kurdish: ker (donkey)
Hurrian: çik- (break)
Kurdish: shik- (break)
Hurrian: xîri (hour, time, moment)
Kurdish: xêra خێرا (soon, hurry)
Hurrian: xizli (coiled)
Kurdish: cexiz جەخز(coiled)
Hurrian: xub- (to break, to destroy)
Kurdish: qup- (to break, to destroy)
160)
Hurrian: istani (between, among)
Kurdish: astang ئاستەنگ (obstacle)
Hurrian: izikun- (to wail)
Kurdish: zikan- (to wail)
Hurrian: kakari (sort of ritual bread)
Kurdish: kullêre, kellane (sort of ritual bread)
Hurrian: magunni (desire)
Kurdish: magirani (desire)
Hurrian: shakari or sagari (sprout, bud)
Kurdish: chakara چەکەرە (sprout, bud)
Hurrian: arushal (hurry)
Kurdish: halasha هەڵەشە (stressful)
Hurrian: heni (now)
Kurdish: henu-ke, niha, neha (now)
Hurrian: parili (crime)
Kurdish: palamar پەلامار (attack)
Hurrian: adi (thus)
Kurdish: dai (thus)
Hurrian: ak-i/u (other)
Kurdish: -ka (other)
170)
Hurrian: we (thou)
Kurdish: ê-we (you)
Hurrian: buru (strong)
Kurdish: wure ورە (strength)
Hurrian: çam (rip)
Kurdish çam (bend)
Hurrian: zurgi (blood)
Kurdish: zûx (blood), (compare, xwênaw=zûxaw)
Hurrian: xahli (cheek)
Kurdish: kulm (cheek)
Hurrian: halwu (fence made with stones)
Kurdish: hêl هێڵ (fence)
Hurrian: xawirni (lamb)
Kurdish kawir کاوڕ (young sheep)
Hurrian: xamaz- (oppress)
Kurdish chaws- (oppress)
Hurrian: hendz (constrain)
Kurdish: hêndj (constrain)
Hurrian: xerari (sinew)
Kurdish: kiroje (sinew)
180)
Hurrian: xeshmi (bright)
Kurdish: gesh (bright)
Hurrian: kalgi (weak)
Kurdish qals/qirj (weak)
Hurrian: nali (deer)
Kurdish: nêrî (male adult goat)
Hurrian: nawn- (pasture)
Kurdish: naw- (pasture)
Hurrian: ul- (to, eat, to devour)
Kurdish: lawar( la-war-) (to devour)
Hurrian: ubi (stupid, insane)
Kurdish: hapa (stupid, insane)
Hurrian: ashxu (high)
Kurdish: shax (mountain), also 'asê' means: uppward, high.
Hurrian: kaziari (high mountains of the Mesopotamian valley)
Kurdish: kazh (high mountain)
Hurrian: kewiranna (the senate, the old men)
Kurdish: gewran (the big ones, the adult ones)
Hurrian: kuzh- (to keep, to retain)
Kurdish: kush- (to hold in hands, to press in hands), alt: Kurdish qoz- (to catch)
190)
Hurrian: nekri (<nek, negh) (lock)
Kurdish: neq نقاندن (niq/nûq)- (to close)
Hurrian: shalhi (to listen)
Kurdish: shil (listen)
Hurrian: siba (dry)
Kurdish: zuwa زوا (dry)
Urartian: dibi (building, room)
Kurdish: diw دیو (room)
Hurrian: shu (day)
Kurdish: shawa-ki (morning, day)
Hurrian: shirat (narrate)
Kurdish: shirove (narrate)
Hurrian: tishan (very much)
Kurdish: tizha تژە (full)
Urartian: sutug (tear away, unjoin)
Kurdish: shetek (knot)
Urartian: gey (anything)
Kurdish gi گ (anything)
Hurrian: baz (enter)
Kurdish: baz (pass by)
200)
Hurrian: xeban-: (to set moving)
Kurdish: xebi- خەبتین (to be active)
Hurrian: hamadz-: (to oppress)
Kurdish: chaws- (to oppress)
Hurrian: haz- (to hear)
Kurdish: bihiz-: (to hear)
Hurrian: xaz (to oil)
Kurdish: xiz (oily, slippery)
Hurrian: pas- (to send somebody)
Kurdish: pas- (to send, as in 'hal pasardin': 'to send into exile')
Hurrian: shagari (ram)
Kurdish: shak (young sheep)
Hurrian: pal (know, understand)
Kurdish: fêr (learn)
Urartian: -kai (position, in place)
Kurdish: -ka (location suffix)
Urartian: muš- (true, fair)
Kurdish: mušur موشوور (fairness)
Hurrian: abi (in front of)
Kurdish: ba (in front of, near)
210)
Hurrian: shimi (sun)
Kurdish: shem (sun) (focilized in shemshemekwere, ''blind for the sun'': ''bat''.
Urartian: derzu/derju (order, arrangement)
Kurdish: darêj- (order, arrangement)
Urartian: tep- (throw down)
Kurdish: tep- (throw down)
Urartian: atqan: (to consecrate)
Kurdish: tarxân (to consecrate)
Urartian: shuki (as)
Kurdish: waki < hoki<shuki وەکی (as)
Hurrian: hur (drink)
Urartian: xurishe (irrigator)
Kurdish: qurishke قوریشکە (cup)
Urartian: ulx (flow out)
Kurdish: bilqبڵق (b<w, bubble)
Urartian: alga-ni (mountain)
Kurdish: Lêj لێژ (abrupt, steep)
Urartian: auiei (somewher)
Kurdish: awê ئەوێ (there)
Urartian: puluse (inscription, stele)
Kurdish: psule (voucher, receipt)
220)
Urartian: niribe (herd)
Kurdish: ran (herd)
Urartian: iese/ieshe? (I, pronoun)
Kurdish: ez ئەز (I, resembles also the old Iranian 'azm', but which one is 'az' actually derives of? Armenians claim Armenian 'yes' (I) is derived of Ur. 'iese
Urartian: armuzi (family, clan, generation)
Kurdish: hoz هۆز (clan) + rama (seed, from to-rama)
Hurrian: hemz (surround)
Kurdish: amêz, hembêz ئامیز (hug)
Urartian: zani (cry out)
Kurdish: zhan, jan, ژان (agony)
Hurrian: karshi (lips)
Kurdish: kalpa کەڵپە (animal lips)
Hurrian: wirwir (loosen)
Kurdish: wilwil ولوڵ (loosen)
Kassite: ash (earth, soil)
Hurrian: esh (earth, soil)
Kurdish: ax ئاخ (earth, soil)
Urartian: qarmexî (gift, present, sacrifice, celebration)
Kurdish: qelin قەلین (gift, dowry)
Urartian: -atuhi (-ness)
Kurdish: -ati (-ness)
230)
Urartian: aman- (vessel, pot)
Kurdish: aman- ئامان (vessel, pot)
God of lightning and storm
Hurrian: Teshup
Urartian: Tesheba
Kassite: Tishpak
Kurdish: Tishk تیشک (light, radiance)
Hurrian: shu (hand)
Kurdish: shop (hand palm)
Hurrian: chilman- (to break, vanish)
Kurdish: chilmis- (fade)
Urartian: shur (wall around a castle, fence, borders of the kingdom)
Kurdish: shure (wall around a castle, fence)
Hurrian: xalwu (fence made with stones)
Kurdish: xal خەڵ (fence made with stones)
Hurrian: ya/ye (who, which, what)
Kurdish: ya/ye (who, which, what)
Hurrian: tun- (to win)
Kurdish: tuna توونا (defeated, destroyed)
Hurrian: taridi (pot)
Kurdish: tirar (pot)
Hurrian: kol (let off)
Kurdish: kol (let off) (as in ''le kol bunewe'')
240)
Hurrian:shir (to be suffiecent)
Kurdish: têr (to be suffiecent)
Hurrian: ha (take)
Kurdish: ha (take!)
Hurrian: tijari (spindle)
Kurdish: teshi (spindle)
Hurrian: ábri (stock of wood-logs)
Kurdish: awirdu (stock of wood-logs), awirig (oven)
Hurrian: baq- (destroy)
Kurdish: baq- بەقین (explode)
Hurrian: bashi (mouth)
Kurdish: bêj (to say), (common a>ê)
Hurrian: pashixi (message)
Kurdish: pazhux (answer)
Hurrian: tad- (love)
Kurdish: dalal (beloved) (common d>l)
Hurrian: tagi (beatiful)
Urartian: taugi (clean)
Kurdish: daq دەق (cheerful)
Hurrian: hild-/held- (high, raise, elevate)
Kurdish: hild-/held- هەڵدان/هڵدان (rasie, elevate)
250)
Hurrian: kabli (copper)
Kurdish: paqir پاقڕ (copper)
Kassite: kukla (slave)
Kurdish: kukla (doll), kukm (homeless)
Hurrian: kumdi (tower)
Kurdish: kumadj کۆماج (column)
Hurrian: kubakhi (hood)
Kurdish: kumik (hood)
Urartian: korde (uncultivated, desolate)
Kurdish: kode (uncultivated, desolate)
Hurrian: kundzi (to kneel)
Kurdish: kudik (knee)
Hurrian: Xiríti (trench)
Kurdish: Xir (trench)
(See also Urartian morphology and Kurdish)
The Scytho-Cimmerian Kingdom Of Cappadocia
The name of Cappadocia first appears in a list of Satrapies of the Achaemenids under Darius I. There is not much information about the Cappadocian people but there are indirect evidence from Greek sources that Cappadocians originated from northern Pontic regions before invading Asia Minor indicating that Cappadocians were descendants of Kimmerians after they were defeated by the Lydian king Alyattes II. in the mid. seventh century BC.
Cappadocia was also called 'Gamirk', which was name of the Kimmerian region in the land of Manna, south of the lake Urmia. This name is still in use as Gawirk (<Gamirk cf. common Kurdish w<m sound change) by the native Kurds, for a relatively vast area located among the modern cities of Bukan, Saqez, Sardasht and Mahabad in eastern Kurdistan.
Cimmerians or actually Kimmerians were a major branch of the Eurasian Scythians. Their name may have originally derived from the proto-Iranian /*gmira/, ''mobile unites, nomadic groups''.
A Kimmerian origin for the Cappadocians is also affirmed by the existence of a handful of the Hittite loanwords in Modern Kurdish. Cappadocia was the area in central Anatolia, where the Hittite language was spoken centuries earlier.
Further Reading (In Russian).